Civics 101

Watch the The Functions of Government video

Notes: 

• Any government, whether democratic or authoritarian, serves common functions

• Democratic government is based on the consent of the governed

• 4 main functions of government:

  • Keep order

    • Laws prevent conflicts, provide solutions

    • Police prevent and investigate crimes, courts provide justice

  • Provide services

    • Schools, libraries, parks, hospitals, mail, water, roads, bridges, garbage collection, fire/police departments, welfare programs

  • Manage foreign affairs

    • Diplomatic relations with other societies

    • Military protection from other societies

  • Guide the community

    • Public policies establish goals and plans

      • Use of resources, environmental policies, zoning regulations

Coming soon...

Watch the Understanding Citizenship video

Notes:

• Citizens = members of a community who have certain rights and duties under a government and are entitled to the protection of that government

• Citizenship

  • Citizens belong to a country and have certain rights including the right to take part in government

    • 14th Amendment says a U.S. citizen is anyone “born or naturalized in the United States” and all citizens get “equal protection of the laws” 

  • Two ways to become a U.S. citizen

1. Natural-born (born a citizen)

• Anyone born in a U.S. state, DC, territory, military base

• Anyone born in another country whose parents are both U.S. citizens or if one parent is a citizen and has lived in the U.S. 

2. Naturalized (legally obtained citizenship)

• Requirements:

  • 18+ years old (children automatically become citizens when their parents do)

  • Lawful permanent resident for 5+ years

  • Read, write, and speak English

  • Good moral character

  • Show understanding of U.S. civics (citizenship test)

• The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services manages citizenship applications

  • Potential citizens apply, take the test, swear a loyalty oath, sign a document

• Losing citizenship (3 ways)

  • Expatriation = giving allegiance to another country

  • Denaturalization = naturalized citizens who lie on their citizenship application lose their citizenship

  • Conviction of specific crimes = treason, taking part in a rebellion, trying to violently overthrow the government

Watch the Duties and Responsibilities of U.S. Citizens video

Notes: 

• Citizens of a democratic government give the government limited powers

  • There is a balance between individual freedom and duties to the country

• Duties = actions citizens must do (5 examples)

  • Obey laws

  • Pay taxes

    • Taxes fund police, schools, firefighters, military, roads, government employees, and much more

  • Defend the nation

    • The Selective Service System requires male citizens aged 18 – 25 to register for a potential draft (military service) 

  • Serve in court

    • Serve on a jury

    • Act as a witness when called

  • Attend school

    • Public school, private school, or homeschool

    • Education is essential in a democracy

      • Thomas Jefferson said: “Whenever the people are well-informed, they can be trusted with their own government.” 

• Responsibilities = actions citizens should do (4 examples) 

  • Be informed

    • Pay attention to government actions, social problems, foreign affairs

  • Be active

    • Vote, advocate, organize, volunteer

  • Contribute to the common good

    • Spend time, money, energy to improve the community

  • Respect the rights of others

Watch the Civil Liberties video

Notes:

• Civil liberties = rights protected from unjust government action

• In the U.S., civil liberties are specified in the Constitution and Bill of Rights, laws, and court decisions

  • Ex: freedom of speech, press, assembly, petition, religion

  • Civil liberties apply at the federal and state level

• A democratic government exists to protect civil liberties

  • Civil liberties are not given by the government, but protected by the government

    • The U.S. Declaration of Independence makes this clear: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”  

• Limits: the rights of one citizen must be balanced against the rights of another

  • Ex: noise ordinances (limit speech), rally/protest permits (limit assembly), slander/libel laws (limit speech)

Watch the Civil Rights video

Notes: 

• Civil rights = rights to freedom and equality (politically and socially)

• In the U.S., civil rights are specified in the Constitution and Bill of Rights, laws, and court decisions

  • Ex: Civil Rights Act of 1964 says there can’t be discrimination in employment based on “race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.”  

• All citizens have the same rights so they are free from discrimination

  • Ex: if some students have the right to free public schooling, all students entitled to that right

  • Ex: if White people are allowed to eat in a restaurant, Black people are also allowed

Watch the Voting Rights video

Notes: 

• Voting is an essential part of a democracy

• Suffrage = the right to vote

• Disenfranchise = prevent people from voting

• Throughout U.S. history, more citizens have gained voting rights

• U.S. Constitutional amendments dealing with voting rights:

  • 15th Amendment = a citizen of any race can vote

  • 17th Amendment = citizens directly vote for their U.S. senators

  • 19th Amendment = women can vote

  • 23rd Amendment = citizens in Washington, D.C. can vote in presidential elections

  • 24th Amendment = prohibits a poll tax (a fee to vote)

  • 26th Amendment = citizens can vote at age 18

• Major U.S. laws related to voting rights:

  • Congressional Act of 1924 = gave all Native Americans citizenship (and therefore voting rights)

  • Civil Rights Act of 1957 = gave the Department of Justice the right to sue states to protect voting rights

  • Civil Rights Act of 1960 = created penalties for anyone who obstructs someone’s voting rights

  • Voting Rights Act of 1965 = suspended literacy tests and created federal voter registrars in seven southern states

    • The federal government could register voters, watch polls on election day, and approve/disapprove state voting laws/procedures

  • Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970 = lowered the voting age to 18 in federal elections, maintained the suspension of literacy tests in all states

  • Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1975 = permanently banned literacy tests and bilingual ballots became required in certain locales

  • Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992 = extended the use of bilingual ballots and voting assistance

  • National Voter Registration Act of 1993 = Made it easier to register to vote and maintain registration

    • The government must offer the opportunity to register when dealing with a government office handling driver’s license, public assistance, and disability programs

    • Also called the “Motor-Voter Law”

  • Voting Rights Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 2006 = banned tests to deny the right to vote and mandated voting materials be in multiple languages

• Major Supreme Court cases related to voting rights:

  • Guinn v. United States (1915) = declared grandfather clauses unconstitutional

    • Grandfather clause = provision some states created to prevent African Americans from voting despite the adoption of the 15th Amendment – said only citizens whose grandfathers had voted prior to 1867 could vote without needing to pay a tax or pass a test

  • Smith v. Allwright (1944) = citizens of any race can participate in primary elections

  • Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) = poll taxes are prohibited in state elections

  • Shelby Co. v. Holder (2013) = overturned parts of the Voting Rights Act – threw out the existing way states and localities were identified as needing their elections laws/procedures reviewed by the federal government and said Congress needed to make a new determination

• U.S. voting rights restrictions:

  • Citizens only (natural-born or naturalized)

  • Adults only (age 18+)

  • States can take voting rights away from people imprisoned, convicted of felonies, or with certain mental illnesses

Watch the The Voting Process video

Notes: 

• Registration

  • States require citizens to register to vote

    • Some require registration before election day

      • Ex: Pennsylvania requires registration 30 days before

    • Some allow registration on election day

      • Ex: Minnesota

    • North Dakota does not require registration

  • The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 has made it easier to register to vote

  • Citizens may register as a member of a political party or as independent (not in a party)

    • Some states only allow party members to vote in a party’s primary election (this is called a closed primary)

• Preparation

  • Voters should gather information about the issues and candidates

    • Sources of info: candidate speeches, news-media outlets, debates, campaign ads, etc.

  • Voters need to discern factual information from misleading information, biased information, and lies

  • Voters select a candidate that best matches his/her priorities

    • This can include:

      • The candidate who supports the most issues a voter cares about

      • The candidate who supports the most important issue for a voter

      • The candidate who has the most experience

      • The candidate who has the best character

      • The candidate who has the best chance of winning

      • The candidate who will keep the status quo or bring the most change

    • It is highly unlikely any candidate will be a perfect fit in all areas; the only candidate who is perfect for you is you

• Voting

  • States determine how voting will occur: voting hours, design of ballot, paper vs. electronic, in-person vs. online vs. mail-in, etc. 

    • Some states allow for early voting (voting prior to election day)

    • Some states allow for mail-in voting

    • States allow for absentee voting for citizens who cannot go to their polling place on election day

      • Some states require a reason while others allow anyone to obtain an absentee ballot

  • Ballot = the list of candidates and/or issues being voted on

  • Polling place = the voting location

    • Often in public buildings such as a school, fire station, community center

    • Each precinct (voting district) has a polling place

    • Voting procedures vary by state and by precinct

      • A voter may be required to sign his/her name and/or show identification

      • People have a right to assistance for issues involving language difficulties, disabilities, etc.

  • Voting is by secret ballot

  • After the polls close, each polling place reports the results and sends the ballots to the canvassing board

    • Canvassing board = official government group that counts the votes and certifies the results

Watch the Voter Participation video

Notes: 

• Voting gives a citizen the chance to influence the political process; not voting reduces or eliminates a citizen’s influence

  • Voter efficacy = a citizen believing his/her vote has influence

  • Voter apathy = lack of interest in voting

• Voter turnout rate = the percentage of eligible voters who actually vote

• Key factors influencing voting decisions:

  • Voter’s background – a voter’s personal background influences who a voter will vote for (and if a voter will vote), including characteristics such as: age, family, race, ethnicity, location, job, income, interests, peer group, etc.

  • Party loyalty – some voters stick with their party and vote “straight party ticket” while other voters who identify less strongly with a party or as independent change the party they vote for based on the candidates and issues in an election

  • Candidate characteristics – a voter considers a candidate’s qualifications, level of experience, personal history, charisma, trustworthiness, etc.

  • Major issues – a voter considers which issues are most important in an election, which issues impact him/her the most, etc.

• Reasons people do not vote:

  • Not registered

  • Work (election day is not a holiday)

  • Illness or disability

  • Lack of transportation to a polling place

  • Satisfied with the status quo

  • Uninformed

  • Alienation – feeling separate from the process due to political corruption, dominance of special interests, unresponsive politicians, etc. 

• Demographics of citizens most likely to vote:

  • Age 30+

  • White and African American

  • Higher socioeconomic status and high wealth

  • College educated

  • Strong party supporters (of any political party)

  • High efficacy

  • High news consumers

• Demographic of citizens least likely to vote: 

  • 18 – 29 year olds

  • Hispanic and Asian American

  • Low income

  • High school dropout

  • Independent (do not identify with a party)

  • Low efficacy

• Factors leading to the highest voter turnout:

  • A presidential election year (lower in “off year” and “midterm” elections)

  • A general election (lower in a primary election)

  • An election that is very competitive

  • Polling place are conveniently located

  • Short wait time at polling places

  • Minimal voter ID requirements

  • Same-day voter registration is possible

  • Early voting is possible

• Voting participation stats among eligible voters:

  • In presidential elections:

    • 1964 = 69% participation

    • 2020 = 66% participation

  • In midterm elections:

    • 2022 midterms = 52% participation 

Notes: 

• Ideologies = political beliefs

• In the U.S., the major ideologies are typically discussed in terms of a left-right spectrum

• On the left: democratic socialist, liberal, progressive ideologies dominate

  • Liberal/progressive:

    • Overall: the two terms are often used interchangeably;  historically, liberal meant government programs and progressive meant government regulation;  embraces modern values

    • Economic issues: government action to solve problems

    • Social issues: adapt to modern changes to enhance the rights of individuals

    • Foreign policy: diplomatic intervention

    • Environmental issues: government regulation and protection

  • Democratic socialist: 

    • Overall: joint ownership of economic resources (by the government or groups of people) and/or robust government regulation of private businesses

    • Economic issues: significant government regulation and/or ownership of economic resources 

    • Social issues: adapt to modern changes to enhance the rights of individuals

    • Foreign policy: limited intervention

    • Environmental issues: government regulation and protection

• On the right: conservative, libertarian ideologies dominate

  • Conservative: 

    • Overall: limited government and adherence to traditional values

    • Economic issues: limited government action

    • Social issues: traditional approach

    • Foreign policy: robust military, limited intervention

    • Environmental issues: limited government regulation

  • Libertarian: 

    • Overall: maximum individual freedom and very limited government

    • Economic issues: no government action (laissez-faire)

    • Social issues: maximize individual freedom

    • Foreign policy: isolationist

    • Environmental issues: no government regulation

• Moderate = holding a less extreme ideological view

• Centrist = holding positions on issues between the left and right ideologies

• Ideologies that do not fit well on the left-right spectrum:

  • Neoliberal

    • Primarily related to economic issues

    • Belief in government intervention to support free market principles

    • Involves deregulation, privatization, government funding of businesses

  • Neoconservative

    • Primarily related to foreign policy

    • Belief in strong military and unilateral intervention to promote democracy and free market economics (in theory)

Watch the Political Party Functions and Structure video

Notes:

• Political party = organization of like-minded voters who seek to win elections, control government, and influence policies

• Party platform = statements expressing a political party’s main beliefs and positions

• Functions:

  • Select which candidate will represent the party in an election for political office

  • Organize like-minded voters

    • A national convention is held prior to a presidential election to establish a party platform, finalize the party’s presidential and vice presidential candidates, and conduct other party business

  • Communicate with citizens about issues and candidates

    • Often, the communication also serves a way for citizens to get educated on important issues, party positions, candidate differences

  • Help register voters

  • Raise money to win elections

  • Encourage party members and independent voters to vote

  • Formulate policies

  • Encourage politicians to vote/act according to the party’s positions

  • Fill jobs in the government 

  • Act as a government watchdog – monitor the political party in power and investigate corruption, abuse of power, etc.

• Structure

  • National committee

    • Led by a national chairperson

    • Includes party members from every state

    • Subcommittees for House and Senate campaigns

    • Functions: raise money, assist campaigns, distribute money, organize a national convention every four years

  • State committees

    • Focus on state elections for governor, state legislators, etc.

  • Local committees – county, city, town, etc. 

    • Local committees are further broken down into voting precincts

Notes:

• The U.S. Constitution does not mention political parties

• Parties vs. factions = parties are long-lasting organizations while factions are temporary alliances

  • The first political parties formed in the 1790s as the result of competing interests, and parties have evolved since

• Two-party system = two dominant political parties compete for power with small third parties also existing

• Major U.S. parties through history:

  • Federalist Party (1790s – 1820s)

    • Favored a strong national government and commercial interests

    • Heavily influenced by Alexander Hamilton

  • Democratic-Republican party (1790s – @ 1825) 

    • Favored state power with a limited national government and agrarian interests

    • Heavily influenced by Thomas Jefferson

  • National Republican Party (@ 1825 – 1834) 

    • Split from the Democratic-Republican Party

    • Favored a strong national government

    • Attracted former Federalist Party members

    • Opposed Andrew Jackson

  • Democratic Party (@ 1825 – present) 

    • Split from the Democratic-Republican Party

    • Supported Andrew Jackson

    • Claimed to support the “common man”

  • Whig Party (1834 – 1854)

    • Created by former National Republicans and others who opposed Andrew Jackson

    • Supported economic protectionism, internal improvements

  • Republican Party (1854 – present)

    • Created by Whigs and third parties

    • Opposed the spread of slavery to new territories

    • Originally strong in the northern states

Watch the Third Parties video

Notes:

• Third party = any political party that is not one of the dominant two parties

• Third parties want to win elections, but often recognize their minimal chance of winning and so they have other goals

  • Eventually supplant one of the two dominant parties

  • Promote a single issue

  • Promote a particular ideology

  • Force the two dominant parties to fight for a particular issue or issues

• Why third parties form:

  • Citizens organize to fight for an issue the dominant parties ignore

  • Citizens that share a particular ideology that is not supported by a dominant party organize to fight for their ideology

  • Some members of a dominant party leave the party over a disagreement

    • The new party they form is known as a “splinter party”

    • Ex: Theodore Roosevelt lost the Republican nomination for president at the 1912 Republican Party’s convention so he left the party and formed the Progressive Party

• Problems third parties face:

  • Lack of news coverage

  • Difficulty getting on the election ballot

  • Fundraising

  • Exclusion from debates

  • Citizens may like the party, but think the party cannot win and so are they may be to help the party

  • Most elected officials are chosen in a “single-member district” system – one candidate wins an election in a particular district

    • This “winner-take-all” system promotes a two-party system

      • This is known as “Duverger’s Law”

      • Many citizens believe the party in second place has a good chance of winning the next election, but a third party is often so far behind there is not reasonable hope of winning the next election

        • Therefore, citizens stop supporting the third party because they want to support a party with a better chance of winning

• Notable third parties in U.S. history:

  • Free Soil Party

  • American Party (Knowing-Nothing Party)

  • Populist Party

  • Progressive Party

  • Reform Party

  • Green Party

  • Libertarian Party

Notes:

• Ideologies are fundamental beliefs whereas political parties are organizations

• Parties hold ideologies, but they can change or abandon their ideology

• Examples:

  • The Democratic Party has a liberal ideology on some issues, but does not necessarily pursue liberal policies for all issues

    • The Democratic president, Bill Clinton, championed the conservative plan to reduce welfare benefits for poor people

  • The Republican Party has a conservative ideology on some issues, but does not necessarily pursue conservative policies for all issues

    • The Republican president, George W. Bush, supported the expansion of the government Medicare program to include Part D

Notes:

• The Democratic and Republican Parties have been around for a long time because they actively work to maintain their dominance

• 1. Pursue and implement popular policies

  • Parties respond to public opinion polling by pursuing policies their members support

• 2. Patronage = giving favors to reward party loyalty (typically giving government jobs)

• Laws have been passed to try to stop this

• Pendleton Act (1883) (and has been updated)

• Civil service reform – government jobs should be given on merit, not political connections

• Civil service test

• Passed after President James A. Garfield was assassinated in 1881 by someone who didn’t get a government job

• Hatch Act (1939) (and has been updated)

• Prohibits federal government employees from engaging in certain political activities

• No bribery, intimidation, using public money for campaigning, cannot be active in a political campaign, run for office…

• 3. Demanding loyalty of party members

  • Parties strongly encourage elected officials to vote along party lines

    • Officials who don’t risk losing party support in future elections

• 4. Shift positions to match the voters

  • Parties adopt new positions that are more popular

    • Ex: President Franklin Roosevelt and the Democratic Party became in favor of passing the Social Security Act in 1935 after it was a popular issue of the Socialist Party

• 5. Gerrymandering = manipulating political boundaries to favor a particular political party or group of people

• The party in power gets to re-draw the lines that create voting districts (for the House of Representatives, the lines are re-drawn after the U.S. census is taken every ten years)

• The district lines can be drawn to give one party or group a better chance of winning elections

Coming soon...

Watch the Candidate Elections video

Notes:

• Candidate elections = elections in which voters are choosing people to hold political office

• Primary = candidates compete for their political party’s nomination

  • A political party selects one candidate to represent the party in the general election

  • Held in the winter, spring, or summer – depending on the state

  • Most states hold primary elections, but some hold caucuses

    • Primary election = vote by secret ballot to select a party’s candidate

      • Closed primary = only party members can participate

      • Open primary = non-members of a party can participate

      • Top-two primary = all candidates from all parties compete for two spots in the general election

        • The two candidates in the general election could be from the same party, different parties, or no party

    • Caucus = meeting of party members to discuss and vote on which candidate should represent the party

• General election = candidates compete for political office

  • All voters select one candidate to serve in office

    • Candidates from multiple parties or no party compete

    • Note: some general elections allow for multiple winners

  • Held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November 

    • Some states allow early voting

• Recall = an election that allows citizens to vote to decide if a politician is removed from office before the end of his/her term

  • Only possible in some states

  • If petition to recall a politician receives enough signatures, a recall election will be held

• Special election = held at any time to fill an office that is vacated by a politician who resigns, is removed, or dies before his/her term ends

Watch the Issue elections: Referendums & Initiative video

Notes: 

• Issue elections = elections in which people are voting on policies

• Referendum = citizens vote to accept or reject a law or state constitutional amendment passed by a legislature

  • The law or amendment starts in the legislature

  • Only some state and local governments allow for referendums

  • Legislative referendum = the legislature decides to put the law on the ballot

  • Popular referendum = citizens use a petition to put laws passed by the legislature on the ballot

• Ballot initiative = citizens vote on proposed news laws or state constitutional amendments

  • The law or amendment starts with the citizens

  • Only some state governments allow for referendums

  • If a petition receives enough signatures, a proposition (prop) is put on the ballot for voters to accept or reject

Watch the Plurality and Majority Electoral Systems video

Notes: 

• There are various ways to determine the winner of elections

• Plurality = the candidate with the most votes wins

• Majority = the candidate with a majority wins (more than half)

  • Often referred to as 50%+1

  • If there is not a majority there is a run-off election between the top candidates only

Notes: 

• Electoral college = an indirect system of electing the president in which citizens vote for electors (popular vote) and the electors choose the president (electoral vote)

• 538 electors = 435 based on the number of members in the House of Representatives, 100 based on the number of senators, and 3 for Washington, D.C.

• A majority of electors is needed = 270+ wins

Watch the General Elections: Terminology & Timing video

Notes: 

• Presidential election = held every four years (always even numbered years)

• President and vice president are elected, as well as all members of the House of Representatives and one-third of Senators

• State and local offices may also be elected depending on the state

• Federal elections occur the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November

• Midterm election = occur in the even numbered years in which there is not a presidential election

• All member of the House of Representatives are elected as well as one-third of Senators

• State and local offices may also be elected depending on the state

• Off-year election = occur in odd-numbered years

• State and local offices may be contested

• Special election = held at any time to fill an office that is vacated by a politician who resigns, is removed, or dies before his/her term ends

• Recall = an election that allows citizens to vote to decide if a politician is removed from office before the end of his/her term

  • Only possible in some states

  • If petition to recall a politician receives enough signatures, a recall election will be held

Watch the Public Opinion video

Notes: 

• Public opinion = the distribution of ideas, beliefs, and attitudes held by people

• It represents what a large number of people think, not what all people think

• It can influence which issues politicians focus on, what they do, how they vote

  • Politicians may pursue policies that public opinion favors and avoid policies public opinion opposes

• Public opinion is influenced by people’s long-lasting beliefs and focus as well as events that influence or change people’s beliefs and focus

• People’s individual political beliefs collectively form public opinion

• 4 key elements of public opinion:

  • Direction = public opinion on an issue is positive of negative

    • Ex: for or against more education funding

  • Intensity = public opinion on an issue is strong or weak

    • Ex: parents with kids in school may feel more passionate about education funding and the elderly may be more indifferent to school budget cuts

  • Stability = how much public opinion changes over time

    • Ex: people may see how school budget cuts lessen the quality of education students receive and, therefore, start to change their attitude about education funding

    • Ex: people may want more education funding when they have kids in school and less funding when their kids are out of school

  • Salience = how important the issue is

    • Ex: people may want more school funding, but it’s not their top priority

Watch the Polling video

Notes: 

• Poll = a survey that provides information about what people think about an issue, government official, candidate, policy, etc. 

• Conducted by news organizations, colleges, politicians

• Provide information about public opinion

• Pollster = a person conducting a poll

• Types of polls:

  • Scientific poll = use of representative samples and fairly worded questions

    • Representative sample = a small group of people that represent a larger group being studied; achieved through random sampling

      • Random sampling = a technique that chooses a representative sample indiscriminately so the sample includes people of different ages, incomes, races, etc.

  • Push poll = use of questions worded to encourage a specific answer

  • Straw poll = unscientific and often rely on people to volunteer to participate, making the sample biased

  • Exit poll = questioning voters as they leave a polling place

• Polling methods:

• Random sample

• A small amount of people will be asked questions and their answers will represent a larger group

• Random sample

• People of different ages, incomes, races, etc.

• Scientific polls use random samples and fairly worded questions

• Push polls use questions worded to encourage a specific answer

• Value of polls:

  • Help government officials/candidates get an understanding of public opinion

    • Election results also convey public opinion, but occur once every few years

    • Can lead to a change in strategy, focus, emphasis based on polling information

  • Specific demographic groups can be targeted by polling to provide detailed information about what the public at large thinks or what a specific demographic group thinks

• Concerns:

  • Government officials/candidates will only do what is popular and not what they truly believe is right

  • Polls can discourage voting if polls show voters that one candidate is far ahead

  • The media’s focus on polling detracts from focusing on issues

  • Polls may be inaccurate

    • Sampling error = the people chosen to participate in the poll may not actually be representative of the larger group

      • This risk increases when the sample is very small compared with the larger group

Watch the An Intro to the News Media video

Notes: 

• Democracy requires citizens to be well informed so the news media is an important source of information

• The news media is also called “the press”

• The news media includes format like newspapers, websites, magazines, books, radio, tv, podcasts

• Functions: 

  • Provides information about the news: issues, people, and events

  • Influences what the government focuses on and does

  • Influences what people think is important and/or how people feel about the news

  • Acts as a “watchdog” for government activities (ex: exposing corruption)

• The relationship between the media and government officials and political candidates is interdependent

• Officials and candidates need the media to get their message out

• Sometimes they leak information

• Leak = secretly pass on information to the media

• The media needs access to officials and candidates to report news stories

• Journalists’ types of sources

• On the record = information given by a source that the reporter can publish and use the name of the source

• Unattributable = information given by a source that the reporter can publish, but not use the name of the source

• Off the record = information given by a source that the reporter cannot publish, the information serves as background information for the reporter

• Anonymous = information given by a source without the reporter knowing the identity of the source

Watch the The Government and the News Media video

Notes: 

• In a democracy, the government and the news media are separate and independent

  • In the U.S., this is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution that provides for “freedom of the press”

    • Supreme Court decisions have upheld the rights of the news media

• The relationship between government officials/candidates and the news media is interdependent

  • Government officials/candidates need the news media’s help to get their message out

  • The news media needs access to government officials/candidates to report news stories

• Methods of government communication with the news media:

  • Press release = announcement given to the news media by government officials/candidates

  • News briefing = when a government official/campaign official passes on information to the news media and may answer questions from reporters

    • Often conducted by a press secretary

  • Press conference = event in which a senior government official/candidate answers questions from journalists

  • Leak = when a government official/candidate secretly passes on information to the news media

    • The leaker could have permission to do so or could be acting alone to expose something

• Legal rights of the news media in the U.S.

  • The First Amendment provides for freedom of the press (news media)

    • This protects the news media against prior restraint

      • Prior restraint = government censorship of information before it is published

    • This also protects the news media from punishment for something already published

  • Shield laws = laws that protect reporters from revealing their sources

    • Privacy Protection Act (1980) = federal law preventing government (federal, state, and local) from seizing source information from a journalist

    • States have their own shield laws

  • Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) = federal law that requires the government to release files to the public (unless the files compromise national security)

    • States have similar laws

• Limitations:

  • The news media cannot publish false information that will harm the reputation of a person 

    • Slander = when false info is spoken

    • Libel = when false info is printed/published

      • This is difficult for a government official to prove

  • A news media outlet may share information with the government prior to publication to determine if publishing the information could harm national security

• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates who receives a license to broadcast over the airwaves

  • The federal government owns the airwaves (tv, radio, internet)

  • FCC manages decisions related to content and ownership

    • Content:

      • FCC can require stations to devote some time to covering public affairs, but cannot censor information

      • Previously, FCC upheld the “fairness doctrine” – media broadcasters were required to cover a range of issues with a range of viewpoints

      • FCC can give fines or revoke broadcast licenses for obscene content

    • Ownership: 

      • FCC can limit the number of stations (tv, radio) that one owner controls

      • Telecommunications Act (1996) = removed or loosened restrictions on media ownership

        • Has led to greater concentration of ownership and reduced competition

        • Allows a few owners to control the content presented to many more people

Notes: 

• News media bias = reporting news in a non-objective way

  • Reasons for bias:

    • Most news media outlets are for-profit businesses that:

      • Seek to report news in a way that attracts customers

      • Seek to satisfy advertisers

    • May want to support a particular ideology

    • May want to support a particular group, party, etc.

  • Forms of news media bias: 

    • Bias by story selection = focusing on a news story or not reporting the story

    • Bias by story placement = putting a news story on the top of a website, front page of a newspaper, start of a broadcast, etc. implies more importance than other stories

    • Bias by image selection = choosing images that are favorable or unfavorable to the bias

    • Bias by spin = adding subjective comments to a news story to express a particular ideology or perspective

    • Bias by selection of sources = choosing sources for a news story that match a particular ideology or perspective and ignoring other sources

    • Bias by omission = leaving out facts or multiple points of view

    • Bias by commission = making unverified claims (assumptions)

    • Bias by labeling = describing a person/event with terms that influence the perception of that person/event (to be positive or negative)

      • Could also be that some people are identified with labels and others are not

      • Ex: calling someone “a right-winger,” “well-respected,” “far left,” etc.

Watch the Political Socialization video

Notes: 

• Political socialization = the process of people forming political values, beliefs, and behaviors

• Socialization helps bring people into a society’s political culture, teaches the major political ideologies, and helps people acquire political party leanings

  • Political culture = fundamental values, beliefs, and practices that most citizens share

    • U.S. political culture includes values such as democracy, liberty, equality, voting

  • Based on who and what they are exposed to, people learn to value participation or to embrace apathy

• Influenced by:

  • Family

  • Peers: friends, classmates, co-workers

  • Education

  • Religion

  • Media

  • Politicians/candidates

  • Interest groups

  • Events

  • Organizations: school, church/synagogue/mosque, clubs, workplace

  • Personal circumstances: social class, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, age, location, job, etc. 

  • And more…

Watch the Interest Groups video

Notes: 

• Interest group = a collection of people/organizations with a shared point of view who work together to advance their point of view

  • Try to influence other people/organizations, government policies, political candidates

• Help individuals to gain more power as a group because they can combine resources and money

  • This allows individuals to have a louder voice and gain access to politicians, candidates, the media, etc.

• Protected by the First Amendment – freedom of speech, assembly, and petition

• Some are partisan (closely linked to a political party) and others are non-partisan

• Functions:

  • Lobby government officials

    • Lobbyist = person who represents a particular special interest group

    • Meet with officials, present information, testify at hearings

    • Encourage members of the interest group to also make contact

      • Phone calls, email, write letters, visit

  • Go to court (lawsuit, defense)

  • Try to influence public opinion

    • Through tv/radio ads, billboards, mailings, protests, etc. 

  • Get involved in elections

    • Help politicians get elected and re-elected

  • Fight for specific issues

• Limitations

  • Their lobbyists must register with the government and follow rules

  • Former government officials must wait a specified period of time before becoming a lobbyist

  • There are contribution limits to campaigns through Political Action Committees (PACs)

• Types of interest groups and examples: 

  • Business associations: U.S. Chamber of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers (NAM)

  • Labor unions: National Education Association (NEA), Service Employees International Union (SEIU), American Federal of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)

  • Professional associations: American Medical Association (AMA), American Bar Association (ABA)

  • Government watchdogs: Common Cause, Public Citizen

  • Charity: Red Cross, American Cancer Society

  • Issue-specific groups: National Rifle Association (NRA), American Association of Retired People (AARP), Sierra Club, Greenpeace, League of Women Voters

  • Civil liberties/rights groups: American Civil Liberties Union, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Campaign

  • Ideological groups: Center for American Progress (liberal), Americans for prosperity (conservative)

  • Religious groups: Moral Majority, Family Research Council

  • Government groups: National School Boards Association

Watch the Lobbying and Lobbyists video

Notes: 

• Lobby = advocate for a particular interest by contacting government officials

• Lobbyist = a person who represents a particular special interest group and lobbies the government

  • Lobbyists can lobby the federal, state, and/or local government

  • When related to lobbying the federal government, the term “lobbyist” refers to a person meeting the federal government’s definition of a lobbyist

    • Is employed by a client to lobby the government

    • Make more than one contact for a client

    • Spends >20% of his/her time working for a client

  • A lobbyist contacting federal government officials must register with the government

  • In 2021, $3.73 billion was spent on lobbying the federal government 

  • Many lobbyists are former members of the House of Representatives and Senate

• Methods:

  • Speak with politicians and/or their staff to persuade them

    • Face-to-face meetings, phone calls, events, lunch meetings, mailings, email, etc.

      • There are rules on gift-giving from lobbyists to government officials

  • Provide information

    • Government officials are not experts on every topic so lobbyists provide information and data related to their special interest

    • May provide testimony in a legislative hearing to provide information on an issue

  • Draft bills

    • Lobbyists often draft entire bills or parts of bills

  • Comment on proposed regulations

• Limitations:

  • Lobbyists must register with the government and follow rules

    • The Lobbying Disclosure Act (1995) provides rules for lobbying

      • Ex: must file semi-annual reports listing the issues/bills being lobbied, the government branches and/or agencies contacted, and the amount of money paid by a client

  • Former government officials must wait a specified period of time before becoming a lobbyist

    • House of Representative – one year

    • Senate – two years

  • Campaign contributions through Political Action Committees are regulated

• Concerns about lobbyists

  • Inadequate regulations that don’t stop undue influence

  • Regulations are not enforced strictly enough

  • Loopholes in regulations

  • Revolving door = short waiting periods mean government officials can go back and forth from working in government to lobbying to government

    • Therefore, they may use government jobs to help themselves get high paying lobbying jobs

Watch the PACs and Super PACs video and the Dark Money video

Notes: 

• Campaigns

• There are limits to how much money people can give directly to candidates

• For federal elections, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) manages the rules for campaign finance

• PACs = political action committees

• People can give to PACs in addition to candidates

• There are limits on how much money people can give directly to candidates

• PACs help candidates with ads, money, etc.

• SuperPACs = super political action committees

• They can spend an unlimited amount and collect an unlimited amount of money on elections

• They cannot work directly with a candidate

• Dark Money = money that is spent on elections, but cannot be traced to a specific donor

  • These groups are often classified as charities so they report to the IRS, not the FEC

• Donor class = name applied to wealthy people who give large sums of money to influence elections

Notes: 

• Must meet the qualifications for a particular office

  • Qualifications vary by office

• Explore how many likely voters and donors there will be

• Make an announcement

• Campaign

  • Give speeches

  • Meet with citizens

  • Make appearances at events

  • Canvass neighborhoods

  • Make advertisements

    • • • • Common man appeal = portray a candidate as best representing and reflecting the voters

          • Black and white = show two clear sides, one favorably and the other unfavorably

          • Card stacking = present only one side

          • Appeal to authority = use a respected person to attest to a candidate or issue

          • Testimonial = show people talking about their support for a candidate or issue

          • Glittering generalities = make a candidate look great with vague statements

          • Bandwagon = encourage voters to join the winning group

          • Labeling = use unflattering terms to describe an opponent

          • Appeal to fear = make voters afraid of the consequences of a candidate or issue not winning

          • Ad hominem = personally attack a candidate

          • Transfer = show a symbol with a candidate to associate the candidate with the symbol, whether positive or negative

• Raise money

• Seek endorsements from popular politicians, respected figures, celebrities, newspapers, etc.

• Engage in debates

Notes: 

• Running for office

• Citizens can run for political positions at all levels of government: president, Congress, governor, state legislature, county executive, mayor, school board...

• Voting

• Participate in primary and general elections

• Advocacy

• Fight for an issue, join a group, spread a message, go to protests, organize like-minded people...

• Contacting lawmakers

• Visit, call, email, write to the politicians so they know how citizens feel about the issues

• Lobbyists = person who presents a particular special interest group and advocate for a particular issue as a job

• They are hired by people or organizations to fight for an issue

• They are constantly in touch with lawmakers, they do research and give lawmakers information

• Money

• Give money to political parties, candidates, buy yard signs, t-shirts...